FFC Cambridge Process - Revision history

Farred: correct target in link

2025-12-08T17:16:30Z

correct target in link

Farred: spell correction

2025-12-08T17:06:49Z

spell correction

Silverwurm: /* Aluminum/Silicon/Calcium Production from Anorthite */

2011-09-02T19:15:40Z

Aluminum/Silicon/Calcium Production from Anorthite

Silverwurm: /* Iron/Titanium Production from Ilmenite */

2011-09-02T19:13:48Z

Iron/Titanium Production from Ilmenite

Silverwurm: added links to carbonyl page, changed aluminum/silicon separation method

2011-08-13T22:36:54Z

added links to carbonyl page, changed aluminum/silicon separation method

205.208.203.59: /* Aluminum/Silicon/Calcium Production from Anorthite */

2011-08-12T16:51:12Z

Aluminum/Silicon/Calcium Production from Anorthite

205.208.203.59: /* Iron/Titanium Production from Ilmenite */

2011-08-12T08:28:32Z

Iron/Titanium Production from Ilmenite

Silverwurm: Added description of Carbonyl separation of Iron and Titanium, added additional references.

2011-08-10T01:14:16Z

Added description of Carbonyl separation of Iron and Titanium, added additional references.

Silverwurm: Iron/Titanium Production from Ilmenite - additional details

2011-08-08T23:06:41Z

Iron/Titanium Production from Ilmenite - additional details

Farred: adding category

2011-08-08T16:42:50Z

adding category

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:16, 8 December 2025
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	==Application To Lunar Colonization==		==Application To Lunar Colonization==
−	In a lunar environment, this process could enable much simpler resource extraction. Experiments have already been done using pellets of [[~~sintering~~\|sintered]] lunar regolith simulant, as well as a non-consumable anode, producing metalized pellets and oxygen<ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/roundtable2006/pdf/tripuraneni.pdf</ref>.	+	In a lunar environment, this process could enable much simpler resource extraction. Experiments have already been done using pellets of [[Sintered Regolith\|sintered]] lunar regolith simulant, as well as a non-consumable anode, producing metalized pellets and oxygen<ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/roundtable2006/pdf/tripuraneni.pdf</ref>.

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:06, 8 December 2025
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	==Application To Lunar Colonization==		==Application To Lunar Colonization==
−	In a lunar environment, this process could enable much simpler resource extraction. Experiments have already been done using pellets of [[sintering\|sintered]] lunar regolith ~~stimulant~~, as well as a non-consumable anode, producing metalized pellets and oxygen<ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/roundtable2006/pdf/tripuraneni.pdf</ref>.	+	In a lunar environment, this process could enable much simpler resource extraction. Experiments have already been done using pellets of [[sintering\|sintered]] lunar regolith simulant, as well as a non-consumable anode, producing metalized pellets and oxygen<ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/roundtable2006/pdf/tripuraneni.pdf</ref>.

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 ===Aluminum/Silicon/Calcium Production from Anorthite===
-[[Anorthite]] ([[Ca]][[Al]]<SUB>2</SUB>[[Si]]<SUB>2</SUB>[[O]]<SUB>8</SUB>), which makes up much of the Lunar Highlands, could be separated from the regolith by grinding, followed by electrostatic/magnetic [[beneficiation]], and then pressed/sintered into an appropriate cathode. As the oxygen is stripped off, metallic [[aluminum]], [[silicon]], and [[calcium]] are produced. The [[calcium]] is soluble in the calcium chloride bath, and will need to be continuously distilled out to keep the calcium concentration from becoming too high (which can reduce current efficiencies). Since silicon is not very soluble in aluminum at bath temperatures (900-1100 C), the aluminum and silicon should separate, the silicon remaining solid, the aluminum melting. This molten aluminum is denser than calcium chloride, and should drip out and collect at the bottom, where it can be siphoned off. Once the [[anorthite]] cathode is completely reduced, a very porous sponge of silicon remains.
+[[Anorthite]] ([[Ca]][[Al]]<SUB>2</SUB>[[Si]]<SUB>2</SUB>[[O]]<SUB>8</SUB>), which makes up much of the Lunar Highlands, could be separated from the regolith by grinding, followed by electrostatic/magnetic [[beneficiation]], and then pressed/sintered into an appropriate cathode. As the oxygen is stripped off, metallic [[aluminum]], [[silicon]], and [[calcium]] are produced. The [[calcium]] is soluble in the calcium chloride bath, and would need to be continuously distilled out to keep the calcium concentration from becoming too high (which can reduce current efficiencies). Since silicon is not very soluble in aluminum at bath temperatures (900-1100 C), the aluminum and silicon should separate, the silicon remaining solid, the aluminum melting. This molten aluminum is denser than calcium chloride, and should drip out and collect at the bottom, where it can be siphoned off. Once the [[anorthite]] cathode is completely reduced, a very porous sponge of silicon remains.
 For every metric ton of Anorthite processed in this manner, approximately 460 kg [[oxygen]], 193 kg [[aluminum]], 201 kg [[silicon]], and 144 kg [[calcium]] would be obtained.

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 [[Ilmenite]] ([[Fe]][[Ti]][[O]]<SUB>3</SUB>), is found in abundance on the lunar Maria and is easily separated through magnetic means. This substance could be processed in the same fashion as [[Anorthite]], resulting in a 54% [[Iron]], 46% [[Titanium]] sponge. Separating this alloy into [[iron]] and [[titanium]] could be done by either distillation or [[Carbonyl process|carbonyl extraction]].
-Another option is to first subject the [[Ilmenite]] to [[Ilmenite_Reduction#Hydrogen_Reduction|Hydrogen Reduction]], producing [[Iron]] and [[rutile|titanium dioxide]]. The iron could then be separated by [[Carbonyl process|carbonyl extraction]], distillation, or grinding followed by use of a magnet. The remaining titanium dioxide could then be run through the FFC Cambridge process, producing a titanium sponge.
+Another option is to first subject the [[Ilmenite]] to [[Ilmenite_Reduction#Hydrogen_Reduction|Hydrogen Reduction]], producing [[Iron]] and [[rutile|titanium dioxide]]. The iron could then be separated by [[Carbonyl process|carbonyl extraction]], distillation, grinding followed by use of a magnet, or by melting and then allowing the products to separate out. The remaining titanium dioxide could then be run through the FFC Cambridge process, producing a titanium sponge.
 The end result for each ton would be approximately 316 kg [[Oxygen]], 316 kg [[Titanium]], and 368 kg [[Iron]].

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 ===Aluminum/Silicon/Calcium Production from Anorthite===
-[[Anorthite]] ([[Ca]][[Al]]<SUB>2</SUB>[[Si]]<SUB>2</SUB>[[O]]<SUB>8</SUB>), which makes up much of the Lunar Highlands, could be separated from the regolith by grinding, followed by electrostatic/magnetic [[beneficiation]], and then sintered into an appropriate cathode. As the process progresses, the oxygen is stripped off, and metallic [[calcium]] is produced, which is soluble in the calcium chloride bath. To keep the calcium concentration from becoming too high (which can reduce current efficiencies), a distillation unit is set up to continuously remove the metallic calcium from the mix. Once the [[Anorthite]] cathode is completely reduced, a sponge consisting of approximately 49% [[Aluminum]], 51% [[Silicon]] remains. This sponge could then be melted and distilled under partial vacuum to produce pure [[aluminum]] and [[silicon]].
+[[Anorthite]] ([[Ca]][[Al]]<SUB>2</SUB>[[Si]]<SUB>2</SUB>[[O]]<SUB>8</SUB>), which makes up much of the Lunar Highlands, could be separated from the regolith by grinding, followed by electrostatic/magnetic [[beneficiation]], and then pressed/sintered into an appropriate cathode. As the oxygen is stripped off, metallic [[aluminum]], [[silicon]], and [[calcium]] are produced. The [[calcium]] is soluble in the calcium chloride bath, and will need to be continuously distilled out to keep the calcium concentration from becoming too high (which can reduce current efficiencies). Since silicon is not very soluble in aluminum at bath temperatures (900-1100 C), the aluminum and silicon should separate, the silicon remaining solid, the aluminum melting. This molten aluminum is denser than calcium chloride, and should drip out and collect at the bottom, where it can be siphoned off. Once the [[anorthite]] cathode is completely reduced, a very porous sponge of silicon remains.
 For every metric ton of Anorthite processed in this manner, approximately 460 kg [[oxygen]], 193 kg [[aluminum]], 201 kg [[silicon]], and 144 kg [[calcium]] would be obtained.
 ===Iron/Titanium Production from Ilmenite===
-[[Ilmenite]] ([[Fe]][[Ti]][[O]]<SUB>3</SUB>), is found in abundance on the lunar Maria and is easily separated through magnetic means. This substance could be processed in the same fashion as [[Anorthite]], resulting in a 54% [[Iron]], 46% [[Titanium]] alloy. Separating this alloy into [[iron]] and [[titanium]] could be done by distillation, as with anorthite. However, separating iron and titanium by a carbonyl process could be more efficient and would result in more pure final product. For carbonyl separation, the sponge would be pulverized to a fine powder and treated with carbon monoxide to produce iron carbonyl, which would evaporate. The iron carbonyl is then separated and heat treated to produce iron and recover the carbon monoxide, leaving finely powdered [[iron]] and [[titanium]] as end products. This process is used terrestrially to produce very pure iron and nickel<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonyl_iron</ref><ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mond_process</ref>.
+[[Ilmenite]] ([[Fe]][[Ti]][[O]]<SUB>3</SUB>), is found in abundance on the lunar Maria and is easily separated through magnetic means. This substance could be processed in the same fashion as [[Anorthite]], resulting in a 54% [[Iron]], 46% [[Titanium]] sponge. Separating this alloy into [[iron]] and [[titanium]] could be done by either distillation or [[Carbonyl process|carbonyl extraction]].
-Another option is to first subject the [[Ilmenite]] to [[Ilmenite_Reduction#Hydrogen_Reduction|Hydrogen Reduction]], producing [[Iron]] and [[rutile|titanium dioxide]]. The iron could then be separated by carbonyl extraction, distillation, or grinding followed by use of a magnet. The remaining titanium dioxide could then be run through the FFC Cambridge process, producing a titanium sponge.
+Another option is to first subject the [[Ilmenite]] to [[Ilmenite_Reduction#Hydrogen_Reduction|Hydrogen Reduction]], producing [[Iron]] and [[rutile|titanium dioxide]]. The iron could then be separated by [[Carbonyl process|carbonyl extraction]], distillation, or grinding followed by use of a magnet. The remaining titanium dioxide could then be run through the FFC Cambridge process, producing a titanium sponge.
 The end result for each ton would be approximately 316 kg [[Oxygen]], 316 kg [[Titanium]], and 368 kg [[Iron]].
 ===Other Products===
-Lunar [[Chromite]] could also be reduced in the same fashion, producing Ferrochrome, which could be used to add [[Chromium]] content to [[Iron]] alloys. Many of the above listed reductions would also contain amounts of [[Magnesium]] and [[Sodium]] (Lunar [[Ilmenite]] in particular is known to be highly enriched with [[Magnesium]]), which could be distilled out fairly easily due to their low melting points.
+Lunar [[Chromite]] could also be reduced in the same fashion, producing Ferrochrome, which could be used to add [[Chromium]] content to [[Iron]] alloys. Many of the above listed reductions would also contain amounts of [[Magnesium]] and [[Sodium]] (Lunar [[Ilmenite]] in particular is known to be highly enriched with [[Magnesium]]), which could be distilled out fairly easily due to their low boiling points.
 ===Chlorine Recovery===
-The only substance used which is not readily available on the Lunar surface is [[chlorine]]. Chlorine is avalible on the lunar surface in the form of [[Apatite]] ([[Ca]]<sub>10</sub>([[P]][[O]]<sub>4</sub>)<sub>6</sub>([[O]][[H]], [[F]], [[Cl]], [[Br]])<sub>2</sub>), but only in trace quantities. If a viable procedure for concentrating apatite out of the lunar regolith is not found, then a high degree of chlorine recycling would be necessary for the FFC Cambridge process to be useful in a lunar environment.
+The only substance used which is not readily available on the Lunar surface is [[chlorine]]. Chlorine is available on the lunar surface in the form of [[Apatite]] ([[Ca]]<sub>10</sub>([[P]][[O]]<sub>4</sub>)<sub>6</sub>([[O]][[H]], [[F]], [[Cl]], [[Br]])<sub>2</sub>), but only in trace quantities. If a viable procedure for concentrating apatite out of the lunar regolith is not found, then a high degree of chlorine recycling would be necessary for the FFC Cambridge process to be useful in a lunar environment.
 Chlorine losses from the system would come in the form of calcium chloride trapped in the pores of the metallic sponge produced in the reduction process, as well as any amount lost from the distillation of calcium metal out of the bath during anorthite processing. The latter losses could be reduced to acceptable levels through careful design of the distillation equipment.
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 In terrestrial applications, the salt trapped in the pores of the sponge is removed by grinding the sponge and washing the resulting powder with water, as calcium chloride is highly water soluble. The same procedure could be followed in a lunar environment, followed by reverse osmosis and distillation to recover the dissolved salt.
-A simpler method is to melt the sponge, as is required for most of the described processes already. Since calcium chloride is not soluble in (and less dense than) most metals, it should separate into a distinct top layer, where it can be easily drained off, while the metallic elements are drained from the bottom.
+A simpler method is to melt the sponge, which would be required for many processes anyway. Since calcium chloride is not soluble in (and less dense than) most metals, it should separate into a distinct top layer, where it can be easily drained off, while the metallic elements are drained from the bottom.
 == References ==

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 The FFC Cambridge Process reduces oxides to their metal components by electrolysis in a bath of molten [[calcium]] chloride. The process has potential to directly produce [[oxygen]] and metal from virtually any oxide. The process works by placing the oxide to be refined into a bath of molten calcium chloride and creating a voltage differential between the oxide component (which forms the cathode) and an anode which is also placed in the bath. Oxygen is stripped off the cathode, where it forms calcium oxide, which is soluble in the calcium chloride bath. This oxide is split at the anode, producing oxygen. The cathode meanwhile is gradually reduced to a porous metallic sponge.
-The process is currently being developed by Metalysis for terrestrial metal production, specifically for the production of titanium; the developers hope it will eventually replace the Kroll Process.
+The process is currently being developed by Metalysis<ref>http://www.metalysis.com/</ref> for terrestrial metal production, specifically for the production of titanium; the developers hope it will eventually replace the Kroll Process.
 ==Application To Lunar Colonization==
-In a lunar environment, this process could enable much simpler resource extraction. Experiments have already been done using pellets of [[sintering|sintered]] lunar regolith stimulant, producing metalized pellets and oxygen.
+In a lunar environment, this process could enable much simpler resource extraction. Experiments have already been done using pellets of [[sintering|sintered]] lunar regolith stimulant, as well as a non-consumable anode, producing metalized pellets and oxygen<ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/roundtable2006/pdf/tripuraneni.pdf</ref>.
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 ===Iron/Titanium Production from Ilmenite===
-[[Ilmenite]] ([[Fe]][[Ti]][[O]]<SUB>3</SUB>), is found in abundance on the lunar Maria and is easily separated through magnetic means. This substance could be processed in the same fashion as [[Anorthite]], resulting in a 54% [[Iron]], 46% [[Titanium]] alloy, which could then be distilled to produce [[Iron]] and [[Titanium]].
+[[Ilmenite]] ([[Fe]][[Ti]][[O]]<SUB>3</SUB>), is found in abundance on the lunar Maria and is easily separated through magnetic means. This substance could be processed in the same fashion as [[Anorthite]], resulting in a 54% [[Iron]], 46% [[Titanium]] alloy. Separating this alloy into [[iron]] and [[titanium]] could be done by distillation, as with anorthite. However, separating iron and titanium by a carbonyl process could be more efficient and would result in more pure final product. For carbonyl separation, the sponge would be pulverized to a fine powder and treated with carbon monoxide to produce iron carbonyl, which would evaporate. The iron carbonyl is then separated and heat treated to produce iron and recover the carbon monoxide, leaving finely powdered [[iron]] and [[titanium]] as end products. This process is used terrestrially to produce very pure iron and nickel<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonyl_iron</ref><ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mond_process</ref>.
-Alternatively, the [[Ilmenite]] could first be subjected to [[Ilmenite_Reduction#Hydrogen_Reduction|Hydrogen Reduction]], producing [[Iron]], [[water]], and [[rutile|titanium dioxide]]. The water could be split with electrolysis to recover the [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]], and the remaining product could then be ground and a magnet used to separate the iron from the titanium dioxide. The titanium dioxide could then be run through the FFC Cambridge process. This would eliminate the distillation step, but would add in exchange a hydrogen furnace, as well as water splitting and grinding equipment.
+Another option is to first subject the [[Ilmenite]] to [[Ilmenite_Reduction#Hydrogen_Reduction|Hydrogen Reduction]], producing [[Iron]], [[water]], and [[rutile|titanium dioxide]]. The water could be split with electrolysis to recover the [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]], and the remaining product could then be ground and a magnet used to separate the iron. The titanium dioxide could then be run through the FFC Cambridge process, producing a titanium sponge.
 The end result for each ton would be approximately 316 kg [[Oxygen]], 316 kg [[Titanium]], and 368 kg [[Iron]].
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 A simpler method is to melt the sponge, as is required for most of the described processes already. Since calcium chloride is not soluble in (and less dense than) most metals, it should separate into a distinct top layer, where it can be easily drained off, while the metallic elements are drained from the bottom.
 == External Links ==
 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffc_cambridge_process FFC Cambridge process on Wikipedia]
 [[Category:Industrial Production]]

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:42, 8 August 2011
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	[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/roundtable2006/pdf/tripuraneni.pdf FFC Cambridge experiment with Lunar Regolith simulant]		[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/roundtable2006/pdf/tripuraneni.pdf FFC Cambridge experiment with Lunar Regolith simulant]
		+
		+	[[Category:Industrial Production]]